공부포인트The judges were given lifetime appointments, 강북구allowed to "hold their offices during good behavior."[308] The Constitution affirmed the "duty" of the individual to worship the "Supreme Being," 수학and that he had the right to do so without molestation "in the manner most agreeable to the dictates of his own conscience."[309] It established a system of public 영어education that would provide free schooling for three years to the children of all citizens.[310] Adams was a strong believer in good education as one of the pillars of the Enlightenment. 전문He believed that people "in a State of Ignorance" were more easily enslaved 미아동while those "enlightened with knowledge" would be better able to protect their liberties.[311] Adams became one of the founders of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1780.[312] Defence of the Constitutions Adams's preoccupation with political and governmental affairs – which caused considerable separation from his wife and children – had a distinct familial context, which he articulated in 공부포인트 1780: "I must study Politicks and War that 강북구my sons may have the liberty to study Mathematicks and Philosophy. My sons ought to study Geography, natural History, Naval Architecture, 수학navigation, Commerce and Agriculture, in order to give their children a right to study Painting, Poetry, Musick, Architecture, Statuary, Tapestry, and Porcelaine."[313] 영어While in London, Adams learned of a convention being planned to amend the Articles of Confederation. In January 1787, he published a work entitled A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States.[314] The pamphlet repudiated the views of 미아동Turgot and other European writers as to the viciousness of state government frameworks. He suggested that "the rich, the well-born and the able" should be set apart from other men in a senate – that would prevent them from dominating the lower house. Adams's Defence is described as an articulation of the theory of mixed government. Adams contended that social classes exist in every political society, and that a 공부포인트good government must accept that 강북구reality. For centuries, dating back to Aristotle, a mixed regime balancing monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy – that is, the king, the nobles, 수학and the people – was required to preserve order and liberty.[315] Historian Gordon S. Wood has maintained that Adams's political philosophy had become irrelevant 영어by the time the Federal Constitution was ratified. By then, American political thought, transformed by more than a decade of vigorous debate as well as formative experiential pressures, had abandoned the classical perception of politics as a mirror of social 미아동estates. Americans' new understanding of popular sovereignty was that the citizenry were the sole possessors of power in the nation. Representatives in the government enjoyed mere portions of the people's power and only for a limited time. Adams was thought to have overlooked this evolution and revealed his continued attachment to the older version of politics.[316] Yet Wood was accused of ignoring Adams's peculiar 공부포인트definition of the term "republic," 강북구and his support for a constitution ratified by the people.[317] On separation of powers, Adams wrote that, "Power must be opposed to power, 수학and interest to interest."[318] This sentiment was later echoed by James Madison's statement that, "[a]mbition must be made to counteract ambition," in 영어Federalist No. 51, explaining the separation of powers established under the new Constitution.[318][319] Adams believed that human beings were naturally desirous of furthering their 전문own ambitions, and a single democratically elected house, if left 미아동unchecked, would be subject to this error, and therefore needed to be checked by an upper house and an executive. He wrote that a strong executive would defend the people's liberties against "aristocrats" attempting to take it away.[320] On the government's role in education Adams stated that, "The whole people must take upon themselves the education of the whole people and be willing to bear the expenses of it. There should not be a district 공부포인트 of one mile square, 강북구without a school in it, not founded by a charitable individual, but maintained at the public expense of the people themselves."[321] Adams first saw 수학the new United States Constitution in late 1787. To Jefferson, he wrote that he read it "with great satisfaction." Adams expressed regret that the president 영어would be unable to make appointments without Senate approval and over the absence of a Bill of Rights. "Should not such a thing have preceded the model?" he asked.[322] Political philosophy and views Slavery Adams never owned a slave and 미아동declined on principle to use slave labor, saying, "I have, through my whole life, held the practice of slavery in such abhorrence, that I have never owned a negro or any other slave, though I have lived for many years in times, when the practice was not disgraceful, when the best men in my vicinity thought it not inconsistent with their character, and when it has cost me thousands of dollars for the labor and subsistence of free men, which I might 공부포인트 have saved by 강북구the purchase of negroes at times when they were very cheap."[323] Before the war, he occasionally represented slaves in suits for their freedom.[324] Adams generally tried to keep the issue out of national politics, because of the anticipated Southern response during a time when unity was needed to achieve i영어ndependence. He spoke out in 1777 against a bill to emancipate slaves in Massachusetts, saying that the issue was presently too divisive, and so the legislation should "sleep for a time." He also was against use of black soldiers in the Revolution 미아동due to opposition from Southerners.[325] Slavery was abolished in Massachusetts about 1780, when it was forbidden by implication in the Declaration of Rights that John Adams wrote into the Massachusetts Constitution.[326] Abigail Adams vocally opposed slavery.[327] Accusations of monarchism Throughout his lifetime Adams expressed controversial and shifting views regarding the virtues of monarchical and hereditary political institutions.[328] At공부포인트 times he conveyed 강북구substantial support for these approaches, suggesting for example that "hereditary monarchy or aristocracy" are the "only institutions that can possibly preserve the laws and liberties of the people."[329] Yet at other times he distanced himself from such ideas, calling himself "a mortal and irreconcilable enemy to Monarchy" and "no friend to hereditary limited monarchy in America."[153] Such denials did not assuage his critics, and Adams was often accused of being a monarchist.[330] Historian Clinton Rossiter portrays Adams not as a monarchist 미아동but a revolutionary conservative who sought to balance republicanism with the stability of monarchy to create "ordered liberty."[331] His 1790 Discourses on Davila published in the Gazette of the United States warned once again of the dangers of unbridled democracy.[332] An elderly man sits in a red chair with his arms crossed, looking slightly left. John Adams by Gilbert Stuart (1823). This portrait was the last made of Adams, done at the request 공부포인트of John 강북구Quincy.[333] Many of these attacks were scurrilous, including suggestions that he was planning to "crown himself king" and "grooming John Quincy as heir to the throne."[330] Peter Shaw has argued that: "[T]he inevitable attacks on Adams, crude as they were, stumbled on a truth that he did not admit to himself. He was leaning toward monarchy and aristocracy (as distinct from kings and aristocrats) ... Decidedly, sometime after he became vice-president, Adams concluded that the United States would have to adopt a hereditary legislature and 미아동a monarch ... and he outlined a plan by which state conventions would appoint hereditary senators while a national one appointed a president for life."[334] In contrast to such notions, Adams asserted in a letter to Thomas Jefferson: If you suppose that I have ever had a design or desire of attempting to introduce a government of King, Lords and Commons, or in other words an hereditary Executive, or an hereditary Senate, either into the government of the United 공부포인트States, or that of any individual state, in this country, you are wholly mistaken. There is not such a thought expressed or intimated in any public writing or private letter of mine, and I may safely challenge all of mankind to produce such a passage and quote the chapter and verse.[335] According to Luke Mayville, Adams synthesized two strands of thought: practical study of past and present governments, and Scottish Enlightenment thinking concerning individual desires expressed in politics.[336] Adams's conclusion was that the great danger was that an oligarchy of the wealthy would take hold to the detriment of equality. To counter that danger, the power of the wealthy needed to be channeled by institutions, and checked by a strong executive.[336][320] Religious views Adams was raised a Congregationalist, since his ancestors were Puritans. According to biographer David McCullough, "as his family and friends knew, Adams was both a devout Christian, and an independent thinker, and he saw no conflict in that."[337] 공부포인트 In a letter to Rush, Adams credited religion
